Africa is home to the world's earliest known use of measuring and calculation, confirming the continent as the birthplace of both basic and advanced mathematics. Thousands of years ago, Africans were using numerals, algebra and geometry in daily life. This knowledge spread throughout the entire world after a series of migrations out of Africa, beginning around 30,000 BC, and later following a series of invasions of Africa by Europeans and Asians (1700 BC-present).

[center]Measuring and Counting[/center]

Lebombo Bone (35,000 BC)



The oldest mathematical instrument is the Lebombo bone, a baboon fibula used as a measuring device and so named for its location of discovery in the Lebombo mountains of Swaziland. The device is at least 35,000 years old. Judging from its 29 distinct markings, it could have been used to either track menstrual or lunar cycles, or used merely as a measuring stick.

It is rather interesting to note the significance of the 29 markings (roughly the same number as lunar cycle, i.e., 29.531 days) on the baboon fibula because it is the oldest indication that the baboon, a primate indigenous to Africa, was symbolically linked to Khonsu, who was also associated with time. The Kemetic god, Djehuty ("Tehuti" or "Toth", was later depicted as a baboon (also an ibis), and is usually associated with the moon, math, writing and science. Use of baboon bones as mathematical devices has been continuous throughout all of Africa, suggesting Africans always held the baboon as sacred and associated with the moon, math, and time.


Ishango Bone (20,000 BC)



The world's oldest evidence of advanced mathematics was also a baboon fibula that was discovered in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo, and dates to at least 20,000 BC. The bone is now housed in the Museum of Natural Sciences in Brussels. The Ishango bone is not merely a measuring device or tally stick as some people erroneously suggest. The bone's inscriptions are clearly separated into clusters of markings that represent various quantities. When the markings are counted, they are all odd numbers with the left column containing all prime numbers between 10 and 20, and the right column containing added and subtracted numbers. When both columns are calculated, they add up to 60 (nearly double the length of the lunar or menstrual cycle).


Gebet'a or "Mancala" Game (700 BC-present)






Although the oldest known evidence of the ancient counting board game, Gebet'a or "Mancala" as it is more popularly known, comes from Yeha (700 BC) in Ethiopia, it was probably used in Central Africa many years prior. The game forces players to strategically capture a greater number of stones than one's opponent. The game usually consists of a wooden board with 2 rows of 6 holes each, and 2 larger holes at either end. However, in antiquity, the holes were more likely to be carved into stone, clay or mud like the example from Medieval Aksum, shown at right. More advanced versions found in Central and East Africa, such as the Omweso, Igisoro and Bao, usually involve 4 rows of 8 holes each.


[center]Fractions, Algebra and Geometry[/center]

"Moscow" Papyrus (2000 BC)



Housed in Moscow's Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, the so-called "Moscow" papyrus, was purchased by Vladimir Golenishchev sometime in the 1890s. Written in hieratic from perhaps the 13th dynasty in Kemet, the papyrus is one of the world's oldest examples of use of geometry and algebra. The document contains approximately 25 mathematical problems, including how to calculate the length of a ship's rudder, the surface area of a basket, the volume of a frustum (a truncated pyramid), and various ways of solving for unknowns.


"Rhind" Mathematical Papyrus (1650 BC)




Purchased by Alexander Rhind in 1858 AD, the so-called "Rhind" Mathematical Papyrus (shown below) dates to approximately 1650 BC and is presently housed in the British Museum. Although some Egyptologists link this to the foreign Hyksos, this text was found during excavations at the Ramesseum in Waset (Thebes) in Southern Egypt, which never came under Hyksos' rule. Written by the scribe, Ahmose, in the "Hieratic" script, the text reads as follows:

"Accurate reckoning for inquiring into things, and the knowledge of all things, mysteries...all secrets... This book was copied in regnal year 33, month 4 of Akhet, under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Awserre, given life, from an ancient copy made in the time of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Nimaatre. The scribe Ahmose writes this copy..."

The first page contains 20 arithmetic problems, including addition and multiplication of fractions, and 20 algebraic problems, including linear equations. The second page shows how to calculate the volume of rectangular and cylindrical granaries, with pi (Π) estimated at 3.1605. Tere are also calculations for the area of triangles (slopes of a pyramid) and an octagon. The third page continues with 24 problems, including the multiplication of algebraic fractions, among others.


Timbuktu Mathematical Manuscripts (1200s AD)



Timbuktu in Mali is home to one of the world's oldest universities, Sankore, which had libraries full of manuscripts mainly written in Ajami (African languages, such as Hausa in this case, written in a script similar to "Arabic" ) in the 1200s AD. When Europeans and Western Asians began visiting and colonizing Mali from 1300s-1800s AD, Malians began to hide the manuscripts in basements, attics and underground, fearing destruction or theft by foreigners. This was certainly a good idea, given Europeans' history of stealing and/or destroying texts in Kemet and other areas of the continent. Many of the scripts, such as the one shown below, were mathematical and astronomical in nature. In recent years, as many as 700,000 scripts have been rediscovered and attest to the continuous knowledge of advanced mathematics and science in Africa well before European colonization.

Source:[url]diasporicroots.tumblr.com/post/87000156338/beautiesofafrique-ancient-african-mathematics[/url]

Following...

Funnily the irony of life.

The first became the last.

I thank you, I appreciate your pride in the lost glory of Africa but how can we escape from the claws of bad leaders and take our place in the world?

Literacy started from Egypt Africa
Mathematics from Ethiopia, Egypt, Swaziland.... These are good stories in their time, not now. Our leaders are killing our tomorrow.

I'm proud of Africa but tired of mediocrity.

I am African....Nigeria my mother land

Ploy:
I thank you, I appreciate your pride in the lost glory of Africa but how can we escape from the claws of bad leaders and take our place in the world?

Literacy started from Egypt Africa
Mathematics from Ethiopia, Egypt, Swaziland.... These are good stories in their time, not now. Our leaders are killing our tomorrow.

I'm proud of Africa but tired of mediocrity.

Why don't you guys try to "impeach" them? Or rally?

pashaun:



Why don't you guys try to "impeach" them? Or rally?

rally? Who wan die?

Nice to know.
Proudly African, Nigerian and Nairalander

So how come we are this backward?

Ploy:


rally? Who wan die?

Rally not riot.

YungwizzzyPt7:
So how come we are this backward?

You should know the answer to that.

blizard44:
Funnily the irony of life.

The first became the last.

I wonder why...

Ploy:
I thank you, I appreciate your pride in the lost glory of Africa but how can we escape from the claws of bad leaders and take our place in the world?

Literacy started from Egypt Africa
Mathematics from Ethiopia, Egypt, Swaziland.... These are good stories in their time, not now. Our leaders are killing our tomorrow.

I'm proud of Africa but tired of mediocrity.

You might want to seek some enlightening from here:
https://www.nairaland.com/1915272/what-preventing-africa-experiencing-cultural

YungwizzzyPt7:
So how come we are this backward?

]

kingston277:
http://historum.com/middle-eastern-african-history/70114-african-culture-9.html
https://www.nairaland.com/1796503/traditional-african-boat-designs
http://historum.com/middle-eastern-african-history/58840-diversity-early-african-architecture-ruins-thread.html
https://www.nairaland.com/1249503/interesting-images-precolonial-early-colonial
https://www.nairaland.com/582176/benin-art-architecture/
Edo Kingdom(Nigeria)


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungbo%27s_Eredo
Asante Empire(Ghana)



Kongo
[img]http://hitchcock.itc.virginia.edu/SlaveTrade/collection/large/VILE-180.JPG[/img]


Nsibidi(Igbo writing system)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nsibidi
More...
https://www.nairaland.com/189030/african-script
Production
http://der.org/resources/study-guides/blooms-of-banjeli-study-guide.pdf
[img]https://www.nairaland.com/attachments/1554585_african-productivity_jpeg73ad16662aab95c5e70965fc917f4ece[/img]
Bathrooms

Science and Tech
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
"Human sacrifice" was actually capital punishment
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Benin_Expedition_of_1897
Human rights concepts
http://www.kentlaw.edu/faculty/bbrown/classes/HumanRightsSP10/CourseDocs/9BanjulCharterandtheAfricanCulturalFingerprint.pdf
http://eccentricyoruba./
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nigeria/precolwon.html
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nigeria/colonwom.html

I know its alot of links but its important for you to know. Plus the above is just West Africa/Central alone!

Try the mirror.

Ploy:
I thank you, I appreciate your pride in the lost glory of Africa but how can we escape from the claws of bad leaders and take our place in the world?

Literacy started from Egypt Africa
Mathematics from Ethiopia, Egypt, Swaziland.... These are good stories in their time, not now. Our leaders are killing our tomorrow.

I'm proud of Africa but tired of mediocrity.

why always Egypt? Even Egypt got lots of it's knowledge from Kush and far sub-Saharan Africa

kingston277:

You might want to seek some enlightening from here:
https://www.nairaland.com/1915272/what-preventing-africa-experiencing-cultural

If language is the bane of development in colonized nations, what of Ethiopia that was never colonized and was one of the emancipated ancient nations?

With the language of the colonial masters, Africa can be what she ought to be if the leaders are disciplined. Don't forget that English language has become a global language.

Ploy:


If language is the bane of development in colonized nations, what of Ethiopia that was never colonized and was one of the emancipated ancient nations?

With the language of the colonial masters, Africa can be what she ought to be if the leaders are disciplined. Don't forget that English language has become a global language.

Yes, it's very important to learn english as a second language as does most nations in the world.

It's true that english is a global language and personally I hope it stays that way (it's easy to learn, etc). But it must be noted that NO country in Europe beside British ones use english as main language of instructions. ALL THE EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, yes all of them, use their own language as medium of instructions and everyday life, same as Asian countries such as Japan, China, South Korea, etc. We're talking about well developed countries such as Finland, Sweden, Scandinavian countries in general, France, Germany, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Russia, Israel, etc.

So yes, English is a great global language, but it is used and learned as a second language (bilingualism, multilingualism) in most of Europe and elsewhere.

AmunRaOlodumare:

Yes, it's very important to learn english as a second language as does most nations in the world.

It's true that english is a global language and personally I hope it stays that way (it's easy to learn, etc). But it must be noted that NO country in Europe beside British use english as main language of instructions. ALL THE EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, yes all of them, use their own language as medium of instructions and everyday life, same as Asian countries such as Japan, China, South Korea, etc. We're talking about well developed countries such as Finland, Sweden, Scandinavian countries in general, France, Germany, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Russia, Israel, etc.

So yes, English is a great global language, but it is used and learned as a second language (bilingualism, multilingualism) in most of Europe and elsewhere.

I have thought about Russia and Japan using another language apart from English and still they are developing but then I realised somethings -

*almost all the African countries are created by the colonial masters. What is the relationship between Hausa-fulani and Igbo for example? Irrespective of our tribal differences, they forced us into one. Countries like Japan are bilingual or monolingual but a small society in Africa is multilingual. How then do we select a language out of the array of languages as a language of instruction?

The linguistic situation of Africa is like a mace, there is mutual suspicion as to linguistic domination and marginalisation. This takes us back to where we started. Our political leaders are benefiting from our backwardness. They travel to Europe and America see development but come back home and play to our fantasy. #let us believe in God, we shall be there one day# The question is, do they mean it?

If the problem of Africa can only be solved when we adopt an indigenous language as a medium of instruction, the problem will never be solved.

Ploy:


I have thought about Russia and Japan using another language apart from English and still they are developing but then I realised somethings -

Not just Russia and Japan, ALL of Europe too!

In general, people should learn in their own Nigerian language as long as possible up to university level, while learning at least one other language like English as a second language. Preferably, you need to add another national language (other than your main language). Learning English as a common language is very important, but in Nigeria it's facilitated by the current position of English in Nigerian society as well as the influence of American media.

AmunRaOlodumare:

Not just Russia and Japan, ALL of Europe too!

In general, people should learn in their own Nigerian language as long as possible up to university level, while learning at least one other language like English as a second language. Preferably, you need to add another national language (other than your main language). Learning English as a common language is very important, but in Nigeria it's facilitated by the current position of English in Nigerian society as well as the influence of American media.

This is not possible, in fact, it can't happen as long as Nigeria is still a country

Ploy:


This is not possible, in fact, it can't happen as long as Nigeria is still a country

Then Nigeria must stop being a country

Ploy:


I have thought about Russia and Japan using another language apart from English and still they are developing but then I realised somethings -

*almost all the African countries are created by the colonial masters. What is the relationship between Hausa-fulani and Igbo for example? Irrespective of our tribal differences, they forced us into one. Countries like Japan are bilingual or monolingual but a small society in Africa is multilingual. How then do we select a language out of the array of languages as a language of instruction?

The linguistic situation of Africa is like a mace, there is mutual suspicion as to linguistic domination and marginalisation. This takes us back to where we started. Our political leaders are benefiting from our backwardness. They travel to Europe and America see development but come back home and play to our fantasy. #let us believe in God, we shall be there one day# The question is, do they mean it?

If the problem of Africa can only be solved when we adopt an indigenous language as a medium of instruction, the problem will never be solved.

That's why I have long realized that a progressive nation is one built on cultural and lingual assimilation
Nigeria lacks that...too bad
It was only a brutish act by the British

Nigerians are better off with their Ethnic nations having their own government and sovereignty

macof:


Then Nigeria must stop being a country

Still if we split along the geo-political zone, we will still have linguistic problem. This is because Nigeria is a Kaleidoscope of languages. Most languages in spectrum do not have standard orthography.

How would the Kadara, Jokum, Kakanda read? When Nigeria split and they are in north

[quote author=macof post=276437

Nigerians are better off with their Ethnic nations having their own government and sovereignty[/quote]

pls, don't be deceived, there was no Nigeria before the colonial masters come. We were myriad of different people living their different lives in a relatively close environment.

Urhobo, Itsekiri, Ijaw etc will never admit they are Igbo. So are Zuru, Gwari, Kadara, Nupe, Koro will never say they are Hausa. Egun may also say they are not Yoruba.

We can't select an indigenous language as a national language because there is mutual suspicion from every angle. If Hausa say they are born to rule, if Hausa is then selected. I guess the fear is confirmed

^^That's not true. Before colonialism in Africa, people were interacting, trading, intermarrying with each others, using multilingualism and lingua franca.

Many African empire were composed of various ethnic groups. Multilingualism and the use of lingua franca is how people were interacting with their neighbors.

In Europe, and around the world, English is used as a lingua franca, not as the main language of instructions. That's a big difference. In fact, I would dare say this cultural continuity with the past is the secret of the development of every nations (China, Japan, Germany, Sweden, South Korea, France, England, Malaysia, etc). Only us poor colonized country don't use our own languages as language of instructions.

Ploy:

If language is the bane of development in colonized nations, what of Ethiopia that was never colonized and was one of the emancipated ancient nations?

Ethiopia was colonized in the 1940s.

Ploy:

With the language of the colonial masters, Africa can be what she ought to be if the leaders are disciplined. Don't forget that English language has become a global language.

I don't know how that would help mother than having the government and private sectors do buisness with forigners. By your logic, the Japanese speak English?

Ploy:


Still if we split along the geo-political zone, we will still have linguistic problem. This is because Nigeria is a Kaleidoscope of languages. Most languages in spectrum do not have standard orthography.

How would the Kadara, Jokum, Kakanda read? When Nigeria split and they are in North

Pls, don't be deceived, there was no Nigeria
before the colonial masters come. We were
myriad of different people living their
different lives in a relatively close
environment.
Urhobo, Itsekiri, Ijaw etc will never admit
they are Igbo. So are Zuru, Gwari, Kadara,
Nupe, Koro will never say they are Hausa.
Egun may also say they are not Yoruba.
We can't select an indigenous language as a
national language because there is mutual
suspicion from every angle. If Hausa say they
are born to rule, if Hausa is then selected. I
guess the fear is confirmed

No. We can't split on geo political lines but ethnic lines
Yoruba, Hausa/fulani, Igbo, Niger delta ethnic/tribes(Ijaw, Efik,ibibio etc.) And Middle belt tribes

The only diverse regions are Middle belt(North central) and south south not North West/east, South West or any other...reasons being the North central and South South has no dominant culture, it's jst a confluence of different cultures coming from Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo and the natives

But why should the large ethnic groups suffer and be denied self determination and independence because of the small ones

You do know that The jukun, idoma and many of the central ethnic groups are descended from the Kwararafa kingdom so their relationship didn't start with Nigeria

Being occupied for a year or two after a war does not amount to being colonised.

Because you may as well state that France, Belgium, Austria and other European countries was colonised by Germany during the World Wars.

Liberia and Sierra Leone were colonised by Nigeria during Abacha era.

Or that Iraq, Afghanistan were colonised by by America

kingston277:

Ethiopia was colonized in the 1940s.


I don't know how that would help mother than having the government and private sectors do buisness with forigners. By your logic, the Japanese speak English?

blizard44:
Funnily the irony of life.

The first became the last.

It's the way of the world. Dominance is cyclical and impermanent. The last will also become the first. In fact, 'white dominance' is a very recent phenomenon in terms of human history. They could dominate for another thousand years and still NOT approach the amount of time that AFRICANS or even ASIANS were dominant. Homer (800 BC) was the first voice of the Greeks - Europe's first known civilization. Ta Seti, in present day Sudan, actually PREDATES Egypt as a major civilization, and thrived as early as 4,000 BC, its origins so remote as to be located in PRE-HISTORY.

GenBuhari:
Being occupied for a year or two after a war does not amount to being colonised.

Because you may as well state that France, Belgium, Austria and other European countries was colonised by Germany during the World Wars.

Liberia and Sierra Leone were colonised by Nigeria during Abacha era.

Or that Iraq, Afghanistan were colonised by by America

http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/40760485?uid=3739448&uid=2&uid=3737720&uid=4&sid=21104654804531
Its commonly considered "colonized" by historians.

so it is only white occupy African countries that the term "colonised" is used.

Not when Africans occupied parts of Europe now known as spain?

Not when Germany occupied france?

not when iraq occupied Kuwait

not when Nigeria under Abacha occupied Sierra Leone and Liberia.

Do you see the trend of hte European historians trying to make entire African history negative?

kingston277:

http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/40760485?uid=3739448&uid=2&uid=3737720&uid=4&sid=21104654804531
Its commonly considered "colonized" by historians.

let me solve it and submit